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Qi
Established c. 1046 BC, it was one of the seven Warring States and had its capital in Shandong. Originally just a state in the Zhou Dynasty, it came to be ruled by the Jiang family for several centuries until they were displaced by members of the Tian family in 384 BC. included areas in Henan, Hebei, Shanxi and Shandong. This state concentrated on irrigation projects on the Yellow River. Ignoring the threat from the Qin to its west, the Wei focused on conquest to the east, but was defeated several times. Meanwhile Qin reformations boosted their economy and conquered Wei's western regions to the extent that the capital was moved further east. Wei allied itself with the Han, but the Qin defeated their army at the Battle of Yique in 293 BC. In 225 BC the Wei surrendered to the Qin completely after they flooded new capital by diverting the Yellow River. Although it held out for a long time, like the other Warring States it eventually succumbed to the Qin, being the last to do so in 221 BC.

Kushans

Kushan empire. Neighboring territories are tributary; in the game top right is part of Xinjiang

The Kushans were an Indo-European speaking tribe called in Chinese chronicles the Yuezhi. Their own name for this latter group may have been the Visha and this was the closest that Chinese writing could achieve. These Visha were living in what are now Xinjiang and Gansu until they lost out in conflicts with the Mongolian Xiong Nu (in the game called Huns) during 176-160 BC and decided to move west to Bactria where they dislodged Sakas or Scythians, probably also an Indo-European people, who had earlier dislodged the Parthians and Bactrian Greeks who had been set up there by Alexander the Great. Here the Kushan tribe of the Visha set up one of the four great empires of the period (the others being the Roman, the Parthian and the Han). Most of the Kushan holdings were in Central Asia and northern India, but they also controlled the desert oases of Xinjiang, probably as a way of controlling the lucrative trade in silk and other items carried by Sogdians and passing through these areas.

Han

Han Dynasty holdings in dark brown

The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China after the Qin and is considered a golden age in China. Beginning about 206 BC, it continued in two periods known as the Western Han to 9 AD and then the Eastern Han to 220 AD. The dynasty's founder was the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang, later known as Emperor Gaozu who was able to establish authority in the instability after the death of the Qin founder. Han territories were mostly concentrated in the north and east, but did reach to the Tarim basin in Xinjiang. Areas of the coast opposite Taiwan and some areas in the southwest east of Yunnan were never under control, however. Besides rebellion, their primary antagonists were the Xiong Nu (Huns) who eventually came to control Manchuria, Mongolia, the Tarim basin and points west such as Samarkand. The Han established a trade embargo on weapons and in revenge the Huns invaded Shanxi, after which the Han were forced to pay large amounts of tribute to maintain peace. Control seesawed back and forth between the Han and Huns, who sometimes had the Qiang as allies. When the Han had reached a moment of triumph, they defeated the Nanyue at sea and expanded control into Guangdong, Guangxi and northern Vietnam. Yunnan and northern Korea were also conquered. After 9 AD there was an interregnum due to the successful revolution of Wang Mang and control of the Tarim basin, Korea and Vietnam were lost and the Huns resumed their raids. Eventually the Han chased them across the Altai Mountains, upon which the nomadic Xianbei took the opportunity to occupy the north from the coast all the way to Xinjiang and beyond. Over time generals were able to amass personal loyalties and sought to take power for themselves. This led to many successful rebellions and loss of power for the the emperor. Eventually China was divided into three spheres of influence which became the Three Dynasties: the Cao Wei (in the game Wei), the Eastern Wu (Wu) and the Shu Han (Shu).

Tungus

Tungus dominance in blue; Song Dynasty is orange; Xi Xia in green

The term Tungus, a designation spread by Russians who got it from the Yakuts and Tatars, has today been largely supplanted by the indigenous term Evenks, for a people of Siberia. In the game, they first appear at at time when this group wasn't particularly making any history. However, one of their tribes called the Jurchen, the Jin, the Kin or several other names was founded in Manchuria in 1115 and by 1125 it had destroyed the Liao Dynasty which had previously controlled Manchuria and part of the Mongol region. In 1127 they ransacked the capital of the Song Dynasty and captured the emperor. War continued until 1141 and ultimately the northern part of the Song territory was ceded to them. After this the Jurchen became sinicized and the capital was eventually moved south from the city near Harbin to Beijing. Attacks on the Song resumed in 1161, but two revolts broke out in the north at the same time, one by Khitan tribesmen. Much weakened, the Jurchen ultimately fell to the Mongols. Their descendants became the Manchus, known as the Qing dynasty in the game.

16 Kingdoms
Also known as the Sixteen States, various states in existence from 304 to 439 AD. None of these states could consolidate power for long. By name they were the Han Zhao, Later Zhao, Cheng Han, Former Liang, Later Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liáng, Southern Liang, Former Yan, Later Yan, Northern Yan, Southern Yan, Former Qin, Later Qin and Western Qin and Xia. Almost all of the rulers of these states were not Chinese, but from the Wu Hu tribe, northern nomads. These nomads, led to revolt by the Xiong Nu (Huns in the game), overthrew the Jin Dynasty and drove them out of northern China. Eventually these were all defeated and most of China reclaimed. In the north, control was held by the Xianbei Northern Wei.

Rouran

Rouran dominance in green

Also known as the Juan-Juan and by many other names, this was a nomadic confederation of mostly Xianbei people who remained in Mongolia even after the Xianbei set up kingdoms in northern China. In the fifth century they controlled Mongolia west to Turpan, which in the game is in Xinjiang. China, following a divide and conquer policy used encouraged divisions among them and in 508 they were defeated by the Tiele. They got their revenge in 516 however and defeated the Tiele. But one of their tribes, the Tujue, defected to the Western Wei and defeated them in 555. Rouran power was destroyed. Many were killed, some fled west, others into China.

10 Kingdoms

Some of the divisions in the 10 Kingdoms period

By the ninth century the Tang Dynasty had become so weak at that time that all it could do was okay the fait accompli takeovers of various warlords. In 907 the last Tang emperor was forced to abdicate and a series of more than twelve independent states were established, though only ten are normally listed: Wu, Wuyue, Min, Chu, Southern Han, Former Shu, Later Shu, Jingnan, Southern Tang, Northern Han. They quickly succeeded one another and by 960 the Song Dynasty had been founded and controlled most of their territories.

Song

Song territories at their height

Succeeding the Ten Kingdoms period, they are called the Northern Song with capital in Kaifeng in the period 960-1127. The following period until 1279 when the northern areas were lost and the capital removed to south of the Yangtze is called Southern Song. This was the first government in the world to issue paper money, the first Chinese dynasty to establish a permanent navy and the first to understand the compass. They were also the first to regularly employ gunpowder for military uses. Due to expanded rice cultivation and the use of early-ripening rice, the population doubled under their aegis. The government also reduced the typical heavy control of markets and the economy. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the 11th-century invention of movable type printing. Pre-modern technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, engineering, and other intellectual pursuits flourished. Power and influence shifted from the aristocratic elite to the bureaucratic elite. Emperor Taizu, the founder, unified China by gradually conquering all other rivals. He stabilized the empire by instituting civil service exams. Rivals for power were the Khitans and the Tanguts. Relations alternated between war and diplomacy. When defeated and forced to pay tribute, such was the strength of the Song economy and foreign demand for their products that it had little negative effect. An inconclusive war was also fought with the Ly Dynasty of Vietnam. Eventually the Jurchen captured the Song capital in the north and the empire relocated south. Though weakened, the economy was still relatively strong and the Song were able to strengthen it yet further. They developed gunpowder bombs and paddle wheel ships that permitted two naval victories on the Yangtze over Jurchen forces over twenty times larger. However, in the 1270s they were unable to stop Kublai Khan and the Mongols who as the Yuan became China's next ruling dynasty.

French
After the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 world trade increased rapidly and the great powers looked at China as a huge market for their goods. However, the Qing dynasty forced all payments for Chinese products to be in silver. France and Britain needed Chinese silk, tea and ceramics, but didn't have enough silver to pay. As a consequence, they got China addicted to opium. By illegally selling this to Chinese they eventually earned back enough silver to buy the next installments of goods they wanted. The emperor attempted to ban trading in opium in 1838 and Britain declared war. During the First Opium War the Chinese were completely outclassed and forced to surrender. The resulting of treat gave Europeans unrestrained access to Chinese ports (and founded Hong Kong island as a British trade emporium). Two Chinese rebellions, the Taiping and the Nien, followed. The powers helped only grudgingly and Britain pressed for more concessions. When the Qing refused, they were defeated by a combination of the French and British in the Second Opium War. The French concession in Shanghai was established in 1849 and gradually expanded, lasting until 1943. They were also granted a permanent diplomatic presence in Beijing. They developed a considerable sphere of influence in south China, adjacent to their holdings in Vietnam.

Germans
Late to the game of empire, Germany gained control of the coastal port of Qingdao in Shandong via a 99-year lease. There they created a facisimile of a German port city in miniature. Two years later this was also the site of the beginning of the Boxer Rebellion, a revolt of the people against foreign powers with late support by the emperor. The great power legations were besieged by the Boxers in Beijing. It required two interventions to relieve them, it finally being accomplished by an eight-power force generalled by the German Alfred Graf von Waldersee. Reparations were paid by China in the amount of $450 million: Russia got 30%, Germany 20%, France 15.75%, Britain 11.25%, Japan 7.7% and the USA 7%. Germany stationed its Far East squadron at Qingdao and developed the city considerably, building streets, installing electricity and a safe water supply. They also created the world famous Tsingtao Brewery. With the outbreak of World War I, Japanese forces fighting on the side of the Entente besieged Qingdao and eventually claimed it, thought it was no restored to China until 1922.

Communists

The Long March

Communism in China had its first faint beginnings in 1919. The party was founded in 1921 in Shanghai. Mao Zedong was present at the first congress in 1921 as one of two delegates from Hunan. Before long a military force was developed which worked with Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang to overthrow various warlords. However the two sides broke ranks in 1927 as Chiang attempt to consolidate power. The communists had to give up their bases in 1934-5 and complete the Long March to find new bases in more remote Shensi. During this time Mao and others gained power. When Japan invaded in 1937, an accommodation was made with the KMT to fight the common enemy, but not a joint command. Both sides maintained their independence. After 1945 civil war resumed, the KMT eventually being defeated and forced to flee to Taiwan. The People's Republic of China was established October 1, 1949.